Roman Infantry of the Roman Kingdom and Republic, Roman infantry of the Late Republic and Early Empire, Individual weapons, personal equipment and haulage, Initial preparations and movement for battle, Mixing of a continuous front with interval fighting, Roman infantry versus the Macedonian phalanx, Roman infantry versus Gallic and the Germanic tribes, Tactical performance versus Gallic and Germanic opponents, Superior tactical organization: victory of Caesar at the Sambre River, Persisting logistics strategy: Gallic victory at Gergovia, Roman infantry versus mobile and guerilla warfare in Hispania. The Roman army, arguably one of the longest surviving and most effective fighting forces in military history, has a rather obscure beginning. The arena of choice for the Roman legion was an open battlefield where well-rehearsed tactics and formations could be executed with crushing effectiveness. Nevertheless, the Macedonian phalanx had key weaknesses. The weapons changes described above are but one example. Instead, he relied on attacking their fortified strongpoints and devastating the zone of conflict in a methodical campaign. The Romans were also well known for having an incredibly systematic organization of their military. One historian of the Second Punic War states: According to Polybius (2.24), the total number of Roman and allied men capable of bearing arms in 225 BC exceeded 700,000 infantry and 70,000 cavalries. Rome also used a variety of incentives to encourage cooperation by the elites of conquered peoples, co-opting opposition and incorporating them into the structure of the empire. A sharp point drives deep into the body of enemy soldiers, while a thickening mass behind expands to further divide their forces. And while the content treads a simplistic (though nifty) overview, we can get the core idea behind the Roman military system and how its adaptability set it apart from some of the other militaries of the ancient world. Added to these were officers. Each maniple was commanded by two Centurions and the whole legion was commanded by six tribunes. The pullback of the best infantry was based more on political reasons (shoring up the power bases of the emperors and various elites) rather than on military reality. Subscribe to Naked Science – http://goo.gl/wpc2Q12000 years ago the Roman army is the best equipped army in the world. (18.30.7-9) 13 9 Bishop and coulston 2006 remains a time-proven bible for Roman military equipment. Some key phases of this evolution throughout Rome's military history include:[2]. It was a close-run thing, illustrating both the fighting prowess of the tribal forces and the steady, disciplined cohesion of the Romans. An even more dramatic demonstration of Roman vulnerability is shown in the numerous wars against Parthian heavy cavalry. [15] Fighting strength could vary but generally a legion was made up of 4,800 soldiers, 60 centurions, 300 artillerymen, and 100 engineers and artificers, and 1,200 non-combatants. Against the Parthians, crushing defeats did not stop the Romans from inflicting serious defeats on the Parthians themselves, for they invaded Parthian territory several times afterwards, and though Parthia proper was never totally conquered, Rome ultimately secured a rough hegemony in the area and managed to successfully destroy Parthian forces in Mesopotamia on numerous occasions. 68-89, Stephen Dando-Collins (2002). Construction of fortified camps. The long pikes of the triarii were to eventually disappear, and all hands were uniformly equipped with short sword, shield and pilum, and deployed in the distinctive Roman tactical system, which provided more standardization and cohesion in the long run over the Hellenic type formations. [78] Crassus' force was systematically dismembered by the smaller Parthians army, who surprised Roman expectations that they would run out of arrows, by arranging for a supply train of ammunition borne by thousands of camels. Often times the soldiers families would live in the cities or villages near the fort. According to Caesar himself, during the siege of the town of Bourges, the lurking warbands of Gauls were: Caesar countered with a strategy of enticing the Gallic forces out into open battle, or of blockading them into submission. Put simply, the relative disparity in the number of available troops at the outset of the conflict meant that Hannibal had a much narrower margin for error than the Romans.[9]. At that point, the entire army would utter a battle cry to frighten their enemy. Centurion – basic commander of the century. Depictions of Roman soldiers in art suggest that the gap between soldiers is 65-75 centimeters. As one historian notes about the persisting strategy: In their battles against a wide variety of opponents, Rome's ruthless persistence, greater resources and stronger organization wore down their opponents over time. Once the legion was deployed on an operation, the marching began. The 4th-century writer Vegetius, in one of the most influential Western military works De Re Militari, highlighted this decline as the key factor in military weakness, noting that the core legions always fought as part of an integrated team of cavalry and light foot. In the open field against Caesar, the Gallic/Celtics apparently deployed chariots with a driver and an infantry fighter armed with javelins. The Romans though took this organisation to new heights. [13] They then progressed to the "faster step" or "full pace"[13] and were required to complete 24 Roman miles (35.544 km or 22.086 modern miles) in five summer hours loaded with 20.5 kilograms (45 lb). This carrot and stick approach forms an integral part of "the Roman way" of war.[76]. 2000 years ago the Roman army is the best equipped army in the world. Strategy and Tactics. It had proven itself on the battlefields of Mediterranean Europe, from Sparta to Macedonia, and had met and overcome several strong non-European armies from Persia to Pakistan/Northwest India. [84] The work of Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus offers a detailed description of the Persian campaign, including the quick charge by the heavy Roman infantry under Julian. [26], As the army approached its enemy, the velites in front would throw their javelins at the enemy and then retreat through the gaps in the lines. Marcellinus's commentary also sharply contrasts the fighting spirit of the Persian infantrymen with those of Rome, stating that they had "aversion to pitched infantry battles. The three lines would often line up – a Legion’s battle formation could be upwards of a mile – with alternating gaps, presenting a wider but still apparently unbroken fighting front. Ironically, many of these were from Germanic tribes who had come to terms earlier. It was divided into three phases: While strong cities/forts and elaborate sieges to capture them were common throughout the ancient world, the Romans were unique among ancient armies in their extensive use of field fortifications. Emphasis was on using the shield to provide maximum body coverage, and for pushing enemies, while attacking with their gladius in thrusts and short cuts in clinch, minimizing exposure to the enemy. The maniple system would divide the Roman army into three units called Hastati, Principes, and Triarii. Their ineffectiveness was demonstrated at Cannae and Adrianople; in both instances, the cavalry was completely destroyed by a vastly more powerful enemy horse. Then the maniples would fall back through the gaps in the principes, who followed the same procedure to form a battle line and charge. The ancient Greeks of Macedonia arranged themselves in a rectangular phalanx to fight, (the Romans borrowed this as they borrowed any innovation that would benefit them) with concentrations of elite fighters and sub-units with their own officers. Key to their success was the standardisation of equipment and training, which included a short list of terse commands that every soldier understood completely. Intercepted messages during the Second Punic War for example were an intelligence coup for the Romans, and enabled them to dispatch two armies to find and destroy Hasdrubal's Carthaginian force, preventing his reinforcement of Hannibal. At the Battle of the Sabis river, (see more detailed article) contingents of the Nervii, Atrebates, Veromandui and Aduatuci tribes massed secretly in the surrounding forests as the main Roman force was busy making camp on the opposite side of the river. Skirmishers would be placed in front of the Roman line in order to inflict casualties on the enemy and reduce the amount of Comitatenses killed in battle. Weaknesses in logistics. Colleen McCullough, (2003) Caesar, p 303-417, Rome at war. If the battle was fought when the maniple system was in place, the army would have the hastati in the front, the Principes in the middle, and the Triarii in the back. Prestige varied based on the cohort they supervised. Even more loosely organized enemies like the Germanic hosts typically charged in distinct groups with small gaps between them, rather than marching up in a neat line.[31]. The operations of Julius Caesar at Alesia are well known. Engaged in foraging and camp construction the Roman forces were somewhat scattered. Penetration of any significance could not just slip in unmolested. Local peasants or farmers might have their supplies taken from them in order to supply the Roman legion. [87] Two of the major factors that have occupied scholars of the military will be discussed here: barbarization and the adaptation of a "mobile reserve" strategy. This allowed them to restock their own supply and prevent the available resources from falling into their opponents' hands. So far the situation looked promising for the warrior host. And it was these Germanic tribes in part (most having some familiarity with Rome and its culture, and becoming more Romanized themselves) that were to eventually bring about the Roman military's final demise in the West. A rallying of about 10,000 disenchanted Aeudan tribesmen (engineered by Vercingetorix's agents) created a threat in Caesar's rear, including a threat to a supply convoy promised by the allied Aeudans, and he diverted four legions to meet this danger. 1892. 50–69, Stephen Dando-Collins (2002). They would have no commander. Gaius Marius’s Marian Reforms of 107 BC changed the army from an armed upper class into a professional body through which every Roman could aspire to social advancement and even riches. A feint using bogus cavalry by the Romans drew off part of the Gallic assault, and the Romans advanced to capture three more enemy outposts on the slope, and proceeded towards the walls of the stronghold. The cold, tired, wet legionnaires that slogged out of the Trebia River to form up on the river bank are but one example of how Hannibal forced or manipulated the Romans into fighting on his terms, and on the ground of his own choosing. There were heavy spikes on its tip that could be used to cl… Facing an enemy that threatened to blanket his troops with a hail of arrows, and in danger of envelopment, Julian deployed his force in a crescent formation, and ordered an advance by both infantry and cavalry on the double, thwarting both dangers by closing quickly. The strategy of the Roman military contains its grand strategy, operational strategy and, on a small scale, its military tactics. Roman generals of the late empire would try to avoid pitched battles in order to conserve manpower. Roman military tactics are still studied at military schools and staff colleges like Sandhurst to this day. [57], The accounts of Polybius leading up to the Battle of Telamon, c. 225 BC mention chariot warfare, but it was ultimately unsuccessful. "Breaking phalanxes" illustrates more of the Roman army's flexibility. The Romans won the war with the help of their engineers who led the army to victory in what might have been the largest naval battle of its time. Hannibal's arrangement had much to recommend it given his weakness in cavalry and infantry, but he made no provision for one line relieving the other as the Romans did. were moved by pack animal and cart, while troops carried weighty individual packs with them, including staves and shovels for constructing the fortified camps. [4] The soldiers in the manipular legions would be heavily spaced apart, allowing greater flexibility on the battlefield. Brady, op. The individual warrior could thus count on temporary relief, rather than endless fighting until death or crippling injury. Numerous scholarly histories of the Roman military machine note the huge numbers of men that could be mobilized, more than any other Mediterranean power. Census data from the Roman Kingdom shows that the soldiers were Hoplites in a Phalanx. The cataphracts extended combat power by serving as shock troops, engaging opposing forces with their heavy lances in thundering charges after they had been "softened up" by swarms of arrows. Henceforth, July 18 was considered an unlucky date on the Roman Calendar. Any army relies on smart strategies and quick battlefield tactics to overcome their enemy. If all-round protection was needed, men on the flanks and at the rear could also present and lock their nearly metre-wide shields together, their sharply curved fronts forming an excellent missile barrier. Rome had employed naval vessels from the early Republic but it was in 260 BCE that they built their first significant navy, a fleet of 100 quinqueremes and 20 triremes, in response to the threat from Carthage. Though popular accounts celebrate the legions and an assortment of charismatic commanders quickly vanquishing massive hosts of "wild barbarians",[46] Rome suffered a number of early defeats against such tribal armies. The death of a leader generally did not cause the legions to lose heart in battle. Traders, hucksters, prostitutes, and other miscellaneous service providers would also follow the marching legion. Soldiers carried out training common to every organized army, from initial muster, arms and weapons drill, formation marching and tactical exercises. As the battle progressed, the massive physical and mental stress intensified. The first cohort was double strength in terms of manpower and generally held the best fighting men. That legion size was at an all-time low was also a factor. [36], Another unique feature of the Roman infantry was the depth of its spacing. The diverted Gallic forces returned however and in frantic fighting outside the town walls, the Romans lost 700 men, including 46 centurions. The front ranks usually cast their pila, and the following ranks hurled theirs over the heads of the front-line fighters. Some scholars challenge the notion that a "mobile reserve" in the modern military sense existed in the Roman Empire, and instead argue that the shifts in an organization represent a series of field armies deployed in various areas as needed, particularly in the East. After a long battle, the Persians withdrew- a tactical victory (albeit a costly one for the Romans according to some historians). The systematic wastage and destruction of enemy economic and human resources were called vastatio by the Romans. Resource Tactics; To Corner or Not to Corner? Some of the best leaders come from both eras, including Marius, Sulla, Scipio, Caesar, Trajan and others. The reasons why the army was particularly effective in bringing foreign lands under the Roman yoke are elucidated below: Discipline. This formation was called the testudo, the Romans would continue to use the testudo throughout the entire history of their civilization. [30] The advantages of gaps are obvious when a formation is on the move- it can more easily flow around obstacles and manoeuvre and control are enhanced and, as the Romans did in the pre-Marius republic, place baggage between the lines meaning that the cargo cannot be easily captured and that the army can quickly get ready for a battle by using it as cover. 2001. When the enemy closed, the hastati would charge. [5][6]Livy states that soldiers would "open" the maniple in order to let the soldiers fight well. Rome’s military was supremely adaptable, quickly changing to the challenge in front of it, but here are three tactics that stood the test of time. [3] The legion of the Early Roman Republic was divided into 30 120-160 men strong maniples organized into 3 lines of 10 maniples. The manipular system also allowed entire Roman sub-units to manoeuvre more widely, freed from the need to always remain tightly packed in rigid formation. Another is a particular attack formation, such as the wedge discussed above, or an encirclement as at the Battle of Ilipa. Ancient Roman Military. The Roman commander was thus generally mobile, constantly moving from spot to spot, and often riding back in person to fetch reserves if there was no time for standard messenger service. Personal items might include a dyed horsehair crest for the helmet, a semi-water-resistant oiled woollen cloak, socks and breeches for cold weather and a blanket. The Parthians also conducted a "scorched earth" policy against the Romans, refusing major set-piece encounters, while luring them deeper on to the unfavorable ground, where they would lack water supplies and a secure line of retreat. Gabriel, Richard A.; Metz, Karen S. (1991). Surprisingly, the least-seasoned men, hastati, made up the front rank. If the first line was repelled by the enemy, another line would rapidly resume the attack. The later debacles at Lake Trasimene and Cannae, forced the proud Romans to avoid battle, shadowing the Carthaginians from the high ground of the Apennines, unwilling to risk a significant engagement on the plains where the enemy cavalry held sway. At the town of Gergovia, resource denial was combined with a concentration of superior force and multiple threats from more than one direction. This quiz has been developed to test your knowledge about tactics, formations, weapons, and history of the Roman Army. Rome rose to become the greatest military force in the history of the West only to parish by the sword The cohorts then advanced in a wedge formation, supported by the velites' and auxiliaries' fire, and charged into the phalanx at a single point, breaking it, then flanking it with the cavalry to seal the victory. Caesar's legion: the epic saga of Julius Caesar's elite tenth legion. [47], Some writers suggest that as a result of such debacles, the expanding Roman power began to adjust to this vigorous, fast-moving new enemy. Such decline, of course, is closely linked with the decay of other facets of Rome's economy, society and political scene. (2014). The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest contains all four: numerical superiority, surprise, quick charges to close rapidly, and favorable terrain and environmental conditions (thick forest and pounding rainstorms) that hindered Roman movement and gave the warriors enough cover to conceal their movements and mount successive attacks against the Roman line. There were always four gateways, connected by two main crisscrossing streets, with the intersection at a concentration of command tents in the centre. [19], Breaking camp and marching. Phalanxes facing the legion were vulnerable to the more flexible Roman "checkerboard" deployment, which provided each fighting man a good chunk of personal space to engage in close order fighting. However instead of Hastati, Principes, and Triarii they used Cohorts. Cavalry opponents were one of the toughest challenges faced by the Roman infantry. Moreover, as will be discussed below, Roman manpower allowed for the adoption of the so-called "Fabian strategy", which proved to be an effective response to Hannibal's apparent battlefield superiority. This meant that the new subdivided infantry lost the awesome power that the earlier legions had, meaning that whilst they were more likely to see a battle they were less likely to win it. The difference between auxiliaries and legionaries began to become negligible from an equipment point of view. [39], The power of Roman field camps has been noted earlier, but in other actions, the Romans sometimes used trenches to secure their flanks against envelopment when they were outnumbered, as Caesar did during operations in Belgaic Gaul. Aside from improving the flexibility of the legion, the space between each unit meant that if a line was routed, they could retreat through the gaps. The Roman Army possessed incredibly skilled commanders, and their superior tactics won them countless battles. given growing difficulties with governing the vast empire, where political turmoil and severe financial difficulties had made the old preclusive security system untenable. All these were arranged in the marching pack toted by each infantryman. Such groupings showed a tendency to neglect "the Roman way" in organization, training, logistics etc., in favour of their own ideas, practices and agendas. Later Roman statesmen Marius would institute the Marian reforms, creating the Roman legion of popular imagination. [20], Intelligence. Note should be taken here of a large number of junior officers the Romans typically used to assure coordination and guidance. [21] During this period, some ancient writers paint a picture of meetings between opposing commanders for negotiation or general discussion, as with the famous pre-clash conversation between Hannibal and Scipio at Zama. [24], The Roman manoeuvre was a complex one, filled with the dust of thousands of soldiers wheeling into place, and the shouting of officers moving to and from as they attempted to maintain order. [15] See detailed battles: Views of the Gallic enemies of Rome have varied widely. The catapults were powered by rope and sinew, tightened by a ratchet and released, powered by the stored torsion energy. The Roman "grind down" approach is also seen in the Bar Kokba Jewish revolt against the Romans. Various battles are summarized to illustrate Roman methods with links to detailed articles on individual encounters. Compressed in the heat of battle, its troops could only primarily fight facing forward. The ground was also sown with caltrops of iron barbs at various places to discourage assault. Eventually the Roman army would switch to the Maniple system. As German scholar Hans Delbruck notes in his "History of the Art of War": The Gallic also demonstrated a high level of tactical prowess in some areas. It is also possible Polybius included the area the soldier occupied, which meant the soldier had six feet of space between them and the other soldiers. Up to this day, Roman military tactics are still learned in staff colleges and military schools like Sandhurst. Ironically, in the final days, the bulk of the fighting was between forces composed mostly of barbarians on either side. He also made better use of cavalry, traditionally an arm in which the Romans were lacking. Afterwards the soldiers would construct a fortified camp. In campaign after campaign, enormous effort was expended to dig—a job done by the ordinary legionary. There are a number of controversies in this area with duelling scholars advancing competing theories. A network of camps and forts were included in these works. Each gap was covered by maniples or cohorts from lines farther back. Effective leadership was also bound up with the famous Roman centurions, the backbone of the legionary organization. As long as the Roman Senate and its successors were willing to replace and expend more men and material decade after decade, victory could be bought through a strategy of exhaustion.[74]. By the time the Romans were engaging against Hellenistic armies, the Greeks had ceased to use strong flank guards and cavalry contingents, and their system had degenerated into a mere clash of phalanxes. The Romans would then try to use their superior coordination to repulse the enemy attack and inflict heavy casualties. Oppidum expugnare was the Roman term for besieging cities. The battles below (see individual articles for detailed accounts) illustrate the difficulties of fighting against phalanx forces. It was deployed in sieges to allow troops and engineers protected access to the walls they sought to destroy before more permanent defensive structures could be built.eval(ez_write_tag([[728,90],'historyhit_com-banner-1','ezslot_20',161,'0','0'])); Marc Antony (of subsequent Shakespearean fame) reportedly used the tactic against the Parthians, who had some success against the testudo with mounted archers, in 36 BC. Use of war machines and covering fire: Many Roman battles, especially during the late empire, were fought with the preparatory fire from catapults, ballistas and onagers. [89], The settlement of the foederati for example, saw large barbarian contingents ushered on to Roman territory, with their own organization, under their own leaders. Several legions made up field armies. It is true that at Châlons, the Roman infantry contributed to the victory by seizing part of the battlefield's high ground. The same procedure was followed when the triarii was phased out - intervals for manoeuvre, reforming and recovery- solid line to engage. Opponents could be relentlessly weakened and exhausted over the long run. Once the main gate was opened or the walls breached, the cavalry and other cohorts entered the city to finish off the remaining defenders. Before a battle the commander would try to maneuver his army in a way that granted him the advantage. Behind the vanguard came the main body of heavy infantry. Construction could take between 2 and 5 hours with part of the army labouring, while the rest stood guard, depending on the tactical situation. Strict and uniform discipline was maintained in the army. History Hit brings you the stories that shaped the world through our award winning podcast network and an online history channel. Such grouping was increasingly ineffective, however, without the severe close order discipline, drill and organization of old times. Entrenchment equipment included a shallow wicker basket for moving earth, a spade and/or pick-axe like dolabra or turf cutter, and two wooden staves to construct the next camp palisade. The cohorts were further sub-divided into three maniples, which in turn were split into two centuries of about 80–100 men each. Tight control had to be maintained, hence the 3rd line triarii were sometimes made to squat or kneel, effectively discouraging premature movement to the front. There were also tools for digging and constructing a castrum, the legions' fortified base camp. The trumpet then sounded again with the signal for "stand by to march". Brought up before a lot, answer is that claims of Roman Legion in China is a very very far stretch at best. The Gallic city was surrounded by massive double walls penning in defenders, and keeping out relieving attackers. This might do well in the initial stages, but as the battle entangled more and more men, the stacked Roman formation allowed fresh pressure to be imposed over a more extended time. The entire foundation of Roman infantry tactics was the idea that by keeping troops in order, one could fightmore effectively. While marching the Legion would deploy in several columns with a vanguard before them. The operations of Scipio were an improvement on some of those who had previously faced Hannibal, showing a higher level of advance thinking, preparation and organization. Strategy saw some success against Roman operations exploited the inherent weakness of the cavalry, in field. And others summary of the Western Roman empire the tactical situation had augmented the infantry lot. Local populaces were massacred or enslaved coordination and guidance relentless Roman rise to dominance over large parts of Macedonian. 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