The advantage of the Roman system is that it allowed the continual funnelling or metering of combat power forward over a longer period—massive, steadily renewed pressure to the front—until the enemy broke. A rallying of about 10,000 disenchanted Aeudan tribesmen (engineered by Vercingetorix's agents) created a threat in Caesar's rear, including a threat to a supply convoy promised by the allied Aeudans, and he diverted four legions to meet this danger. A praetor or a propraetor could only command a single legion and not a consular army, which normally consisted of two legions plus the allies. [8], This strategy has been described as "defense in depth. Another is a particular attack formation, such as the wedge discussed above, or an encirclement as at the Battle of Ilipa. The Roman army was the ancient world’s master of formation movement, with a menu of pre-drilled movements at the general’s fingertips. [44] The 4 conditions above were in their favour: (a) numerical superiority, (b) the element of surprise, (c) a quick advance/assault, and (d) favourable terrain that masked their movements until the last minute. His placement of siege engines and bolt throwers in the towers and along the wall of his enclosing fortifications at Alesia were critical to turning back the enormous tide of Gauls. Some writers such as Luttwak condemn the old-style "forward" policy as indicating a "Maginot Line" mentality in the troubled latter centuries of the Empire. Against more sophisticated opponents the Romans also showed great flexibility at times, such as the brilliant adjustments Scipio made against Hannibal at Zama. Some key phases of this evolution throughout Rome's military history include:[2]. Strategy and Tactics. In the early imperial period, however, Germanic warbands inflicted one of Rome's greatest military defeats, (the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest) which saw the destruction of three imperial legions and was to place a limit on Roman expansion in the West. The stamina and willpower demanded to make yet one more charge, to make yet one more surge grew even greater. [93], There are numerous other facets to the controversy, but whatever the school of thought, all agree that the traditional strengths and weaponry of the heavy infantry legion declined from the standards of earlier eras. The focus below is primarily on Roman tactics – the "how" of their approach to battle, and how it stacked up against a variety of opponents over time. Where the Romans faced another large state structure, such as the Parthian Empire, they found the military road rocky indeed and were sometimes forced to an impasse. The individual warrior could thus count on temporary relief, rather than endless fighting until death or crippling injury. They knew the costs they were incurring for each soldier had to be quite similar on their enemy's side. These drew on Caesar's veteran legions and made Ventidius one of the Roman generals to celebrate a triumph against the Parthians. Only the veterans of the triarii retained the long spear- vestige of the former phalanx. Others point to the heavy fiscal difficulties and political turmoil of the later Empire that made it difficult to continue a traditional policy. Despite several defeats, the Romans inflicted such losses on the Epirote army that the phrase "Pyrrhic victory" has become a byword for a victory won at a terrible cost. Should they be discomfited, there still remained the veterans of the triarii who let the survivors retreat through the preset gaps. Attack resource locations: Once they conquered territory, the Romans would secure as many resources as they could handle. See the Dying Gaul for an example. After staying in the camp for some time, the army would destroy the camp to prevent its use by the enemy, and then continue moving. One scenario for not using gaps is deployment in a limited space, such as the top of a hill or ravine, where extensive spreading out would not be feasible. In a reflection of the earlier placement of the veteran triarii in the rear, the less experienced cohorts - usually the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 6th, and 8th - were in the front; the more experienced cohorts - 1st, 5th, 7th, 9th, and 10th - were placed behind.[29]. [72] Rome's massive manpower supply was the foundation of this approach. The inner trench alone was 20 feet (6.1 m) deep, and Caesar diverted a river to fill it with water. Instead of vast formations of thousands of troops, smaller units would engage smaller-scale incursions by raiders. When defending a city they built palisades, assault roads, moles, breakwaters and double walls. This massive concentration of Romans was able to besiege the fortress in detail and repulse Gallic relief forces, and it fell in little more than a month. The Parthians and their successors used large numbers of fast-moving light riders to harass and skirmish, and delivered the coup de grâce with heavily armoured lancers called "cataphracts". Roman Infantry of the Roman Kingdom and Republic, Roman infantry of the Late Republic and Early Empire, Individual weapons, personal equipment and haulage, Initial preparations and movement for battle, Mixing of a continuous front with interval fighting, Roman infantry versus the Macedonian phalanx, Roman infantry versus Gallic and the Germanic tribes, Tactical performance versus Gallic and Germanic opponents, Superior tactical organization: victory of Caesar at the Sambre River, Persisting logistics strategy: Gallic victory at Gergovia, Roman infantry versus mobile and guerilla warfare in Hispania. [24], The Roman manoeuvre was a complex one, filled with the dust of thousands of soldiers wheeling into place, and the shouting of officers moving to and from as they attempted to maintain order. Another factor in the Romans' defeat was a treacherous defection by Arminius and his contingent.[52]. As noted above, the fierce charge of the Gauls and their individual prowess is frequently acknowledged by several ancient Roman writers. Roman Legions were divided into units called Cohorts. This caused the enemy phalanx to collapse, securing a route for the Romans. It was deployed in sieges to allow troops and engineers protected access to the walls they sought to destroy before more permanent defensive structures could be built.eval(ez_write_tag([[728,90],'historyhit_com-banner-1','ezslot_20',161,'0','0'])); Marc Antony (of subsequent Shakespearean fame) reportedly used the tactic against the Parthians, who had some success against the testudo with mounted archers, in 36 BC. In addition, the Roman fortified camps provided secure staging areas for offensive, defensive and logistical operations, once their troops were deployed. A military formation that was inherently Roman in nature, the famed Testudo (Latin for ‘Tortoise’) was a battlefield tactic that was generally applied by the trained legionaries during siege battles. Subsequent Roman leaders like Antony invaded Parthian territory but had to withdraw after severe losses. [36], Another unique feature of the Roman infantry was the depth of its spacing. One historian of the Second Punic War states: According to Polybius (2.24), the total number of Roman and allied men capable of bearing arms in 225 BC exceeded 700,000 infantry and 70,000 cavalries. Wiley. These organized military tactic and strategies predated the Romans. Four of the cohorts would line up on the battle line and lead. The affair was decided in less than two hours, with a comprehensive defeat for the Macedonians. The later Roman army was more cavalry-orientated than it had been before and as a result, detachments were able to be moved around the empire at will, ending the previous doctrine of keeping all forces on the frontiers at the edge of the empire. Information was gathered from spies, collaborators, diplomats and envoys, and allies. Facing an enemy that threatened to blanket his troops with a hail of arrows, and in danger of envelopment, Julian deployed his force in a crescent formation, and ordered an advance by both infantry and cavalry on the double, thwarting both dangers by closing quickly. The Romans, however, were to learn from their mistakes. The catapults were powered by rope and sinew, tightened by a ratchet and released, powered by the stored torsion energy. Use of war machines and covering fire: Many Roman battles, especially during the late empire, were fought with the preparatory fire from catapults, ballistas and onagers. [67] At Gergovia by contrast, Caesar's strength was divided by the appearance of another Gallic force in his rear (the Aeudans)- threatening his sources and lines of supply. As camp building commenced, the barbarian forces launched a ferocious attack, streaming across the shallow water and quickly assaulting the distracted Romans. It’s a matter of simple physics. Shields were protected on the march with a hide cover. If the principes could not break the enemy, they would retreat behind the triarii and the whole army would leave the battlefield in good order. This gap provided space for marshalling the legionnaires for battle and kept the troop area out of enemy missile range. The velites were deployed in front of this line in a continuous, loose-formation line. Roman Infantry Tactics in the Mid-Republic: A Reassessment 303 Both schools of military history either ignore or minimize the role of tactics. While marching the Legion would deploy in several columns with a vanguard before them. It does not attempt detailed coverage of things like army structure or equipment. It was the main house of economic and political power. Implementation of such ideals could be mixed according to some writers, but it was "a trilogy [driving] every aspect of military, domestic, economic and social life. 'Later Roman Battle Tactics' in C. Koepfer, F.W. The Roman commander, however, mobilized his 10th Legion as a blocking force to cover his withdrawal and after some fighting, the tribesmen themselves withdrew back to Gergovia, taking several captured legion standards. Some modernist views see them in a proto-nationalist light, ancient freedom fighters resisting the iron boot of empire. As one historian notes about the persisting strategy: In their battles against a wide variety of opponents, Rome's ruthless persistence, greater resources and stronger organization wore down their opponents over time. The First Punic War was fought between Rome and Carthage from 264 to 241 BC when the Romans were considered newcomers in the Mediterranean. Hannibal's arrangement had much to recommend it given his weakness in cavalry and infantry, but he made no provision for one line relieving the other as the Romans did. The tactics were simple but versatile enough to face different enemies in multiple terrains: From the forests of Germania to the rocky planes of the Greek peninsula. In front of the whole lot stood the unfortunate velites, the newest (and usually poorest) recruits, who would launch javelins at approaching enemies before melting back behind the triarii. Nevertheless, an advance by its left-wing drove back the Romans, who counterattacked on the right flank and made some progress against a somewhat disorganized Macedonian left. 1915. Henceforth, July 18 was considered an unlucky date on the Roman Calendar. On the cry, “cuneum formate”, the legionaries would form a wedge and charge at the opposition. "[85] In an earlier engagement outside the walls of Ctesiphon, Marcellinus again notes the value of the quick advance by the infantry: Mixed results against major cavalry enemies. ), and thus cannot be excluded from any analysis of its infantry forces. Below is a very basic summary of the legion's structure and ranks. Supreme command of either legion or army was by consul or proconsul or a praetor, or in cases of emergency in the republican era, a dictator. Key to their success was the standardisation of equipment and training, which included a short list of terse commands that every soldier understood completely. These war machines, a form of ancient artillery, fired arrows and large stones towards the enemy (although many historians question the battlefield effectiveness of such weapons). After Attila's invasion of the Western Roman Empire the Romans started to use mounted archers.[8]. Brady, op. When their tactics did not initially work, commanders would often mold their strategy to what was necessary. The opposition also failed to deploy supporting forces effectively to help the phalanx at its time of dire need. But while the case of Hannibal underscored that the Romans were far from invincible, it also demonstrated their long-term strengths. After the approach marching was complete, it would be extremely difficult to deploy an unbroken army of men for combat across any but the flattest ground without some sort of intervals. All these were arranged in the marching pack toted by each infantryman. Legions also carried onagers, ballistas, and scorpios. Formations. The central feature of the Roman army of the mid-Republic, or the Polybian army, was the manipular organization of its battle-line. Most phalanxes favoured one huge line several ranks deep. Specialist groups like engineers and artificers were also used. Centurion – basic commander of the century. The Romans won the war with the help of their engineers who led the army to victory in what might have been the largest naval battle of its time. CLICK HERE TO READ MORE Deployed too late, and they might be swept away in a rout if the first line began to break. [48] The Romans began to phase out the monolithic phalanx they formerly fought in and adopted the more flexible manipular formation. Other items of Roman equipment from studded sandals, to body armour, to metal helmets added to Roman advantages. Roman soldiers would build infrastructure such as roads or supply caches while on march. Roman legionaries had armor, a gladius, a shield, two pila, and food rations. As long as the Roman Senate and its successors were willing to replace and expend more men and material decade after decade, victory could be bought through a strategy of exhaustion.[74]. What was the 'Roman way of war'? The Velites would fight in a swarm of uncoordinated soldiers. Most military commanders of the day simply had their troops rush wildly at the enemy, relying on superior numbers, better soldiers, or luck to carry the day. The veterans then formed a continuous front to engage the enemy or provided cover for the retreat of the army as a whole. The trumpets would then be sounded for a final time and then the troops were asked three times whether they were ready, to which they were expected to shout together "Ready! If the first line was repelled by the enemy, another line would rapidly resume the attack. After the velites had retreated through the hastati, the 'posterior' century would march to the left and then forward so that they presented a solid line, creating a solid line of soldiers. [17] The Roman army after the Marian reforms was also unique in the ancient world because when lined up opposite an enemy readying for battle it was completely silent except for the orders of officers and the sound of trumpets signalling orders. When the enemy closed, the hastati would charge. These qualities, among others, made them more than a match for the phalanx, when they met in combat.[31]. It's unknown if the recorded flowery speeches are non-fiction, but these encounters don't show a record of resolving the conflict by means other than the anticipated battle. An even more dramatic demonstration of Roman vulnerability is shown in the numerous wars against Parthian heavy cavalry. The reason for this was because the soldiers needed to be able to hear such instruction, the Optios of the Legions would patrol behind the century and anyone who was talking or failing to obey orders immediately was struck with the stick of the optio. Like the Early Republican armies, the legions would still be organized into the same checkerboard formation. [5][6]Livy states that soldiers would "open" the maniple in order to let the soldiers fight well. The Roman army, arguably one of the longest surviving and most effective fighting forces in military history, has a rather obscure beginning. [97], Roman discipline, organization and logistical systemization sustained combat effectiveness over a longer period. To soften up the enemy before the main infantry, the soldiers would throw pilum, or shoot arrows. However, the ground it had to advance over was rough, and the powerful phalangial formation lost its tight cohesion. As German scholar Hans Delbruck notes in his "History of the Art of War": The Gallic also demonstrated a high level of tactical prowess in some areas. This formation was called the testudo, the Romans would continue to use the testudo throughout the entire history of their civilization. After 410 the emperor in the West could no longer project military power to the frontiers. The cohorts were further sub-divided into three maniples, which in turn were split into two centuries of about 80–100 men each. [14], After conditioning, the recruits underwent weapons training; this was deemed of such importance that weapons instructors generally received double rations. Roman military tactics evolved from the type of a small tribal host-seeking local hegemony to massive operations encompassing a world empire.This advance was affected by changing trends in Roman political, social and economic life, and that of the larger Mediterranean world, but it was also undergirded by a distinctive "Roman way" of war. One innovation on the Greek phalanx that the Romans introduced was a triple line formation of three distinct ranks. Heavy equipment and material (tents, artillery, extra weapons and equipment, millstones etc.) Some of the best leaders come from both eras, including Marius, Sulla, Scipio, Caesar, Trajan and others. Some historians show that they sometimes used massed fighting in tightly packed phalanx-type formations with overlapping shields, and employed shield coverage during sieges. Strict and uniform discipline was maintained in the army. The discipline of the Roman infantry restored the line, however, and a counterattack eventually defeated the Gallic forces and their allies. It was a close-run thing, illustrating both the fighting prowess of the tribal forces and the steady, disciplined cohesion of the Romans. According to Polybius, in his comparison of the phalanx versus the Roman system: The Greek king Pyrrhus' phalangical system was to prove a tough trial for the Romans. Aside from improving the flexibility of the legion, the space between each unit meant that if a line was routed, they could retreat through the gaps. However, they were no longer used in an offensive role but primarily for the pre-battle show - riding back and forth and hurling insults. Against these mighty resources Hannibal led from Spain an army of approximately 50,000 infantry and 9,000 cavalry ... Rome's manpower reserves allowed it to absorb staggering losses yet still continue to field large armies. Gaius Marius’s Marian Reforms of 107 BC changed the army from an armed upper class into a professional body through which every Roman could aspire to social advancement and even riches. A large number of officers in the typical Roman army, and the flexible breakdown into sub-units like cohorts or maniples greatly aided coordination of such moves.[37]. Advances in Roman tactical thinking led to the adoption of eastern-style cataphracts and mass-use of auxiliary forces as cavalry, both of which were used to address previous shortcomings of the Roman army. In later centuries this was phased out in favour of one overall army commander. Time after time Hannibal exploited the tendencies of the Romans, particularly their eagerness to close and achieve a decisive victory. Citizenship conveyed certain valuable rights in Roman society, and was another element that helped to promote the standardization and integration of the infantry. Oppidum expugnare was the Roman term for besieging cities. In the combat that ensued, Roman discipline, heavy shield, armour and training were to give them important advantages in combat. [19], Breaking camp and marching. On occasion, a legion would have ballista, or a piece of field artillery that threw large arrows. Prefect – third in command of the legion. Typical of all armies, local opportunities were also exploited by troops on the spot, and the fields of peasant farmers who were near the zone of conflict might be stripped to meet army needs. Depictions of Roman soldiers in art suggest that the gap between soldiers is 65-75 centimeters. [42] Such "mixed" forces presented additional command and control problems. Then they would use siege weapons and the soldiers to assault the city and take it. Several legions grouped together made up a distinctive field force or "army". By Sir Percy Molesworth Sykes. [93] At the Battle of Châlons (circa 451 AD) Attila the Hun rallied his troops by mocking the once-vaunted Roman infantry, alleging that they merely huddled under a screen of protective shields in close formation. In subsequent battles after the Pyrrhic wars, they showed themselves masters of the Hellenic phalanx. The Limitanei would be stationed in their own forts throughout the empire. The Romans though took this organisation to new heights. Each legion marched as a distinct formation and was accompanied by its own baggage train. Subscribe to Naked Science – http://goo.gl/wpc2Q12000 years ago the Roman army is the best equipped army in the world. Whatever the actual formation took however, the ominous funnelling or surge of combat power up to the front remained constant: Whatever the deployment, the Roman army was marked both by flexibility and strong discipline and cohesion. If the enemy refused to come out and at least make a demonstration, the commander could claim a moral advantage for his men, contrasting the timidity of the opposition with the resolution of his fighting forces.[17]. The Roman army came up with a new mechanism called the corvus which means “crow” in Latin. Vegetius's "De Re Militari" was the only major work of Roman military science to survive from classical times. Other modern scholars (Ferrill et al.) It had proven itself on the battlefields of Mediterranean Europe, from Sparta to Macedonia, and had met and overcome several strong non-European armies from Persia to Pakistan/Northwest India. The first line was made up of Hastati, the second Princeps, and the third Triarii. Gergovia was situated on the high ground of a tall hill, and Vercingetorix carefully drew up the bulk of his force on the slope, positioning allied tribes in designated places. Prestige varied based on the cohort they supervised. If a fourth rung of "engagement" is added, then the whole can be seen as a ladder, with each level from the foot upwards representing a decreasing concentration on military engagement. They were willing to absorb the humiliation in Italy and remain on the strategic defensive, but with typical relentless persistence they struck elsewhere, to finally crush their foes.[31]. These Roman techniques repeatedly defeated their Germanic adversaries. Centurions (roughly equivalent in rank to today's non-commissioned or junior officers, but functioning as modern captains in field operations) commanded cohorts, maniples and centuries. The Roman military was instrumental in making the Roman Empire great. Houghton-Mifflin, Archer Jones. When conducting a siege the army would begin by building a military camp. The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest contains all four: numerical superiority, surprise, quick charges to close rapidly, and favorable terrain and environmental conditions (thick forest and pounding rainstorms) that hindered Roman movement and gave the warriors enough cover to conceal their movements and mount successive attacks against the Roman line. The earliest soldiers of the Roman army were hoplites. A legionary typically carried around 27 kilograms (60 pounds) of armour, weapons, and equipment. This mismatch of blades or missiles allows the wedge in to force a gap that can be widened by the rest of the formation against an enemy that is being compressed into a smaller space. Caesar's legion: the epic saga of Julius Caesar's elite tenth legion. Once the main gate was opened or the walls breached, the cavalry and other cohorts entered the city to finish off the remaining defenders. Cohort: six centuries or a total of 480 fighting men. Unlike other civilizations, the Romans kept going relentlessly until typically their enemies had been completely crushed or neutralized. These range from the Testudo formation during siege warfare, to a hollow square against cavalry attack, to mixed units of heavy foot, horse and light infantry against guerrillas in Spain, to the classic "triple line" or checkerboard patterns. Parthian casualties were minimal.[79]. The Gallic were unable to sustain their strategy, however, and Vercingetorix was to become trapped in Alesia, facing not divided sections or detachments of the Roman Army but Caesar's full force of approximately 70,000 men (50,000 legionnaires plus numerous additional auxiliary cavalry and infantry). "Breaking phalanxes" illustrates more of the Roman army's flexibility. Several days might be spent in a location studying the terrain and opposition, while the troops were prepared mentally and physically for battle. Some elements that made the Romans an effective military force, both tactically and at higher levels, were: The Romans were able to copy and adapt the weapons and methods of their opponents more effectively. The manipular system allowed engaging every kind of enemy even in rough terrain, because the legion had both flexibility and toughness according to the deployment of its lines. At the Battle of the Sabis river, (see more detailed article) contingents of the Nervii, Atrebates, Veromandui and Aduatuci tribes massed secretly in the surrounding forests as the main Roman force was busy making camp on the opposite side of the river. The initiative of such men played a key part in Roman success. "The country was wasted by fire and sword fifty miles round, nor sex nor age found mercy; places sacred and profane had the equal lot of destruction, all razed to the ground.." (Tacitus, Annals). The commander would try to boost the morale of his soldiers during the march. The diversity of troops gave the phalanx great flexibility, but this diversity was a double-edged sword, relying on a mix of units that was complicated to control and position. If well-led and deployed (compare Pyrrhus to the fleeing Perseus at Pydna below), they presented a credible infantry alternative to the heavy legion. Entrenchment equipment included a shallow wicker basket for moving earth, a spade and/or pick-axe like dolabra or turf cutter, and two wooden staves to construct the next camp palisade. While not a classic phalanx force, Hannibal's army was composed of "mixed" contingents and elements common to Hellenic formations, and it is told that towards the end of his life, Hannibal reportedly named Pyrrhus as the commander of the past that he most admired[43] Rome however had blunted Pyrrhus' hosts prior to the rise of Hannibal, and given their advantages in organization, discipline, and resource mobilization, why did they not make a better showing in the field against the Carthaginian, who throughout most of his campaign in Italy suffered from numerical inferiority and lack of support from his homeland? Various battles are summarized to illustrate Roman methods with links to detailed articles on individual encounters. However, Rome's enemies weren't always too accommodating for Rome's preferences and would force conflict to take place in a … One writer recreates the following as to Caesar's army in Gaul:[10] Each soldier arranged his heavy pack on a T or Y-shaped rod, borne on his left shoulder. While the drop in quality did not happen immediately, it is argued that over time, the limitanei declined into lightly armed, static watchman type troops that were of dubious value against increasing barbarian marauders on the frontiers. The shape of the camp was generally rectangular but could vary based on the terrain or tactical situation. The near-defeat of Caesar in his Gallic campaign confirms this latter pattern but also shows the strengths of Roman tactical organization and discipline. Generally speaking, the Gauls and Germans needed to get into good initial position against the Romans and to overwhelm them in the early phases of the battle. Turning Retreat into Victory: How Did the Allies Win the Western Front in 1918? The combat formation used by the Greeks and Romans was called the phalanx. The other six would follow behind the first four as reserves should many men fall in battle. With all this in perspective, they realized each individual soldier was a far too valuable resource to waste. The final rank, which could be some distance back, was the line beyond which the Roman legionary would not retreat. Commanders also kept an eye on the situation in Rome since political enemies and rivals could use an unsuccessful campaign to inflict painful career and personal damage. At Pydna the contenders deployed on a relatively flat plain, and the Macedonians had augmented the infantry with a sizeable cavalry contingent. It was a sad commentary on the force that had once dominated Europe, the Mediterranean and much of the Middle East. Internal Roman fighting between Caesar and Pompey also saw the frequent employment of trenches, counter-trenches, dug-in strong points, and other works as the contenders manoeuvred against each other in field combat. Yet another is a closing phase manoeuvre when a solid line is constructed to make a last, final push as in the battle of Zama. A feint using bogus cavalry by the Romans drew off part of the Gallic assault, and the Romans advanced to capture three more enemy outposts on the slope, and proceeded towards the walls of the stronghold. These gaps gave the already flexible legion even more room for manoeuvre and allowed the rear ranks to step up into a threatened line. The legion also carried an artillery detachment with 30 pieces of artillery. Surprisingly, the least-seasoned men, hastati, made up the front rank. You the stories that shaped the world asserts that the fall of Rome varied. Tightened by a ratchet and released, powered by the Greeks and Romans was called corvus. 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Should many men fall in battle and coulston 2006 remains a time-proven bible Roman.